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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


LOJS  ANGELES 
STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

AT 

LOS  ANGELES 

LIBRARY 


Y.  B.  Separate  64G. 


SELECTION  OF  HOUSEHOLD 
EQUIPMENT. 


BY 


HELEN  W.  ATWATER, 

Assistant  in  Nutrition.  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 


[From  Yearbook  of  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1914.] 


94G01' — 1  J 1  WASHINGTON  :  GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE  :  1815 


39e>4k 


I  •  ■    «         « 


I  «     «.-■„' *■•«•!••*     •     •    •  #  •  "     • « 


-ll 


rl 

n  CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Planning  before  buying 340 

Choosing  for  necessity,  convenience,  and  pleasure 341 

Fitting  equipment  to  particular  conditions 342 

What  makes  a  well-furnished  house 343 

Economy  in  cost  and  care 345 

General  and  permanent  equipment 346 

Furniture 355 

Arrangement  of  kitchen  f urniture 359 

Importance  of  studying  hotisehold  questions 361 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATES. 

Page. 

Plate  XXVII.  Designs  of  wall  paper 348 

XXVIII.  An  inexpensive  plate  and  an  inconvenient  teapot. .  348 

XXIX.  Good  designs  of  pitchers 348 

XXX.  Convenient  and  inconvenient  tables 348 

TEXT   FIGU1M 

Fio.  20.  A  table  with  adjustable  top 360 

m 


SELECTION  OF  HOUSEHOLD  EQUIPMENT. 

By  Helen  W.  Atwater, 
Assistant  in  Nutrition,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. 

WHEN  one  considers  the  variety  of  things  which  must  be 
put  into  a  house  to  furnish  it  even  simply,  the  question 
of  household  equipment  appears  a  complicated  one.  The 
variety  is  necessary  because  a  house  serves  many  different 
purposes.  Considered  merely  in  its  material  aspect,  it  is  the 
place  where  the  family  eat  and  sleep  and  take  their  ease,  and 
it  is  also  a  workshop  in  which  a  great  many  different  things 
are  made,  and  each  of  these  purposes  must  be  recognized  in 
furnishing  it. 

Considered  as  a  workshop,  it  is  sometimes  a  bakery,  some- 
times a  clothing  factory,  sometimes  a  cleaning  establishment, 
and  so  on.  The  list  of  tasks  which  are  performed  in  the 
household  is  by  no  means  as  long  as  it  was  in  the  days  when 
cloth  was  spun  and  candles  made  at  home,  and  almost  every 
decade  sees  more  work  removed  from  the  home  to  the  com- 
mercial factory.  Nevertheless,  a  great  many  tasks  still 
remain  and  are  likely  to  remain  in  the  home,  for  which  pro- 
vision must  be  made  in  furnishing  it. 

In  equipping  her  home  the  housekeeper  should  be  guided 
by  the  same  principles  that  would  be  followed  in  the  selection 
of  equipment  for  any  other  workshop,  and  should  choose 
furnishings  and  tools  which  will  make  it  possible  for  her  to 
carry  on  her  various  household  tasks  with  the  least  waste 
of  time,  work,  and  materials.  In  other  words,  a  house  should 
be  equipped  for  efficiency  in  carrying  on  housework  just  as 
carefully  as  a  modern  shoe  factory  is  equipped  for  making 
shoes.  In  such  a  factory  lighting,  heating,  ventilation, 
sanitation,  etc.,  are  as  carefully  considered  as  the  machinery, 
and  these  matters  of  hygiene  are  even  more  important  in 
the  home,  which  is  not  merely  a  workshop,  but  also  a  place 
in  which  to  ns!  and  recuperate.      .Since  ;i  home  is  even  more 

than  that,  and  serves  also  as  the  material  setting  for  the  life 

of  the  family,  other  points  must    be  considered  which   have 

339 


340  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

little  or  nothing  to  do  with  efficiency  in  a  factory.  It  is 
certainly  as  important  in  a  home  to  provide  for  comfort  and 
wholesome  enjoyment  as  for  cooking  and  cleaning,  eating 
and  sleeping. 

PLANNING  BEFORE  BUYING. 

Sometimes  when  a  woman  takes  up  the  problem  of  house 
furnishing  she  has  to  buy  everything  new  from  the  beginning, 
and  sometimes  she  already  has  a  more  or  less  complete  equip- 
ment  which  she  hopes  to  improve  gradually,  that  is  (to  con- 
tinue the  comparison  with  the  factory) ,  she  has  to  do  with  a 
' '  going  concern."  In  either  case  she  must  study  the  situation 
carefully  and  make  sure  of  what  she  most  wants  before  she 
begins  to  buy.  It  is  impossible  for  her  to  select  to  the  best 
advantage  unless  she  has  all  the  principal  needs  in  mind  to 
begin  with  and  goes  at  the  task  systematically.  Haphazard 
buying  is  always  extravagant  and  nowhere  more  so  than  in 
connection  with  house  furnishings.  There  is  such  a  bewilder- 
ing variety  of  things  to  be  used  in  a  house  that,  unless  the 
housekeeper  keeps  a  clear  idea  of  what  she  wishes  most  and 
plans  her  buying  carefully,  she  will  find  herself  getting  things 
which,  though  useful,  are  not  the  most  useful,  or  are  not  the 
best  adapted  to  her  particular  needs.  Two  dining  tables  may 
be  equally  good  of  their  kind,  but  one  may  be  much  better 
adapted  to  a  particular  house  and  family  than  the  other.  If 
it  is  a  case  of  furnishing  a  house  entirely  with  new  things,  it  is 
wise  to  go  slowly  and  learn  from  experience  what  will  best  suit 
the  special  conditions,  even  if  this  prevents  putting  the  whole 
house  completely  in  order  at  once.  For  example,  it  might 
be  well  to  see  how  one's  belongings  fit  into  the  built-in 
cupboards  before  deciding  whether  to  buy  a  sideboard  or  a 
china  closet.  If  only  a  limited  amount  of  money  can  be 
spent  at  one  time,  it  would  probably  be  better  to  leave  an 
extra  bedroom  unfurnished  or  do  without  an  extra  rug 
than  to  ''skimp"  on  the  quality  of  the  necessary  things. 
When  it  is  merely  a  question  of  renewing  or  increasing  old 
equipment,  the  thoughtful  housekeeper  considers  the  value 
of  each  article  in  connection  with  what  she  has  or  expects 
to  have  as  well  as  by  itself.  If  she  has  no  convenient  cup- 
board for  her  ironing  supplies,  an  ironing  table  of  the  settle 
type  with  a  box  under  the  seat  may  be  more  serviceable 
than  the  ordinary  kind;  and  if  she  expects  to  get  a  new 


Selection  of  Household  Equipment.  341 

set  of  table  dishes  soon  and  can  then  use  some  of  the  old 
ones  in  the  kitchen,  it  is  poor  polic}^  to  stock  up  unneces- 
sarily with  kitchen  ware. 

In  order  to  buy  in  accordance  with  a  definite  plan  she 
must  often  steel  herself  against  the  allurements  of  bargain 
counters  or  of  beguiling  salesmen,  not  because  the  wares 
they  offer  are  not  intrinsically  good  or  cheap,  but  because 
in  spite  of  being  good  or  cheap  they  may  not  be  what 
she  really  needs  most.  It  is  poor  economy  for  her  to  buy 
sheets  which  will  not  be  used  for  several  years  instead 
of  napkins  which  are  needed  at  once,  simply  because  the 
sheets  happen  to  be  a  few  cents  cheaper  than  usual,  or  to  be 
persuaded  to  take  an  omelet  pan  when  what  she  had  meant 
to  get  next  was  a  new  coffee  pot. 

CHOOSING  FOR  NECESSITY,  CONVENIENCE,  AND  PLEASURE. 

In  equipping  any  workshop,  whether  it  be  a  factory,  a 
dairy,  or  a  house,  the  two  chief  elements  which  govern  choice 
arc  necessity  and  convenience.  Very  often  one  article 
answers  both  these  demands,  and  if  possible  those  should  be 
chosen  which  not  only  fill  a  need  but  fill  it  in  a  way  which  is 
economical  of  labor  and  material.  For  example,  a  kitchen 
stove  is  usually  considered  a  necessity,  not  a  convenience, 
but  in  selecting  it  a  model  which  js  convenient  to  work  at 
and  to  care  for  is  what  a  good  housekeeper  looks  for.  In 
choosing  labor-saving  devices  it  is  a  good  rule  to  give  the 
preference  to  those  which  save  heavy  work  and  which  lighten 
tasks  most  frequently  performed.  A  machine  for  washing 
clothes  saves  more  bodily  energy  than  a  patent  roasting 
pan,  and  a  meat  chopper  is  used  more  often  than  a  device 
I'm  stoning  cherries. 

The  third  element  of  choice  in  the  case  of  many  articles  of 
household  equipment  is  that  of  pleasure  or  beauty.  As  has 
already  been  pointed  out,  this  marks  the  difference  between 
furnishing  the  house  and  furnishing  other  workshops. 
Whereas  tin'  out  put  of  a  factory  consists  of  the  particular  line 

<.f  goods  which  il   makes,  and  the  output  of  a   dairy ,  of  milk, 

butter,  and  cheese,  the  output  of  a  home  includes  not  only 

such   material   things  :i^  food  and  clothing  and  even  general 

comfort,  hut   also  such   immaterial  things  as  the  mental, 

moral,    and    spiritual    welfare    of    its    occupants.      We    some- 
B460]   —15 2 


342  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

times  assume  that  these  less  material  factors  of  home  life 
are  independent  of  the  furniture  and  equipment  of  the  house 
and  can  be  trusted  to  take  care  of  themselves  if  they  are  not 
actually  discouraged.  But  if  a  family  really  wishes  its  home 
to  be  more  than  a  place  to  eat  and  sleep  in,  it  ought  to  plan 
as  deliberately  for  increasing  the  production  of  comfortable 
and  profitable  leisure,  pleasant  social  intercourse,  and  an 
intelligent  interest  in  things  outside  of  its  material  needs  as 
for  mere  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  Fortunately,  this  does 
not  always  mean  buying  more  costly  furniture  and  more 
elaborate  equipment,  but  rather  choosing  things  which  not 
only  are  necessary  and  convenient,  but  which  at  the  same 
time  give  pleasure.  Since  we  must  have  dishes  to  eat  from, 
we  might  as  well  have  them  in  attractive  shapes  and  patterns 
and  color,  especially  as  good-looking  ones  do  not  necessarily 
cost  more  than  others.  The  more  any  article  that  is  used  in 
the  home  includes  all  three  elements  of  necessity,  conven- 
ience, and  beauty,  the  more  efficiently  will  it  serve  its 
purpose. 

FITTING  EQUIPMENT  TO  PARTICULAR  CONDITIONS. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  hard  and  fast  rules  as  to  exactly 
what  articles  or  materials  are  best  for  use  in  the  household, 
because  conditions  vary  so  greatly.  No  two  homes  are 
exactly  alike  as  regards  house  and  occupants  and  income,  and 
what  is  suitable  and  economical  in  one  may  be  inconvenient 
and  extravagant  in  another.  In  a  new  house  stained  and 
varnished  woodwork  may  be  easiest  to  take  care  of,  but  when 
the  woodwork  is  old  and  worn  paint  may  make  a  more 
satisfactory  finish;  in  fact,  if  the  wood  has  already  been 
painted,  it  may  be  difficult  to  use  any  other  finish.  It 
would  be  as  poor  economy  for  a  family  in  easy  circumstances 
to  hesitate  at  the  price  of  such  household  improvements  as  a 
screened  porch  or  a  good  kitchen  floor  as  it  would  be  for 
people  who  can  hardly  pay  for  keeping  their  everyday  neces- 
sary equipment  in  proper  condition  to  buy  a  charcoal  broiler 
for  steaks  and  chops  or  a  collection  of  expensive  brushes 
intended  for  cleaning  special  kinds  of  furniture. 

The  housekeeper  must  plan  her  household  equipment  with 
reference  to  the  amount  of  labor  there  will  be  to  run  it.  If 
she  is  to  do  everything  herself   she  must  not  only  arrange 


Selection  of  Household  Equipment.  343 

her  work  and  her  implements  so  as  to  avoid  all  unnecessary 
work,  but  she  must  also  avoid  many  other  things,  such  as 
bric-a-brac  which  is  difficult  to  dust,  polished  surfaces  which 
have  to  be  frequently  rubbed,  and  elaborate  linen  which  it 
takes  much  time  and  skill  to  launder.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  she  does  the  work  herself,  she  may  be  justified  in  buying 
things  of  better  quality  than  if  they  were  to  be  used  by  a 
careless  helper. 

The  question  of  space  must  also  be  considered.  In  a  large 
house  with  plenty  of  storage  room  one  can  perhaps  afford  to 
have  special  equipment  for  this,  that,  or  the  other  kind  of 
work,  but  where  space  is  strictly  limited  one  must  concen- 
trate. For  example,  one  must  choose  one's  pots  and  pans 
so  that  each  will  serve  several  purposes,  and  arrange  the 
closets  and  cupboards  so  that  all  the  space  in  them  will  be 
used  to  the  best  advantage.  It  is  questionable  whether  un- 
necessary utensils  and  scattered,  half-filled  closets  are  ever 
worth  the  extra  work  they  occasion,  but  where  space  is 
limited  it  is  certainly  poor  economy  to  keep  superfluous 
things  about. 

WHAT  MAKES  A  WELL-FURNISHED  HOUSE. 

The  well-furnished  house  is  not  one  which  is  cluttered  up 
with  things  which  may  be  useful  or  attractive  hi  themselves, 
but  which  nobody  uses  or  enjoys,  but  one  which  contains 
those  things  which  are  necessary  for  convenience  in  working 
and  for  comfort  and  satisfaction  in  living,  and  no  more.  It 
need  not  on  that  account  be  strictly  utilitarian;  on  the  con- 
trary, if  it  were  well  planned,  perfectly  convenient,  and  per- 
fectly comfortable,  it  would  also  be  beautiful,  because  beauty 
does  not  lie  so  much  in  the  ornaments  which  are  put  on  a 
thing  as  in  the  perfect  adaptation  of  that  thing  to  the  use 
for  which  it  is  intended.  In  a  collection  of  historical  furni- 
ture the  most  beautiful  pieces  of  each  period  are  not  those 
which  are  most  elaborately  decorated,  but  those  in  which 
material  and  shape  and  workmanship  best  answer  the  needs 
they  were  designed  to  meet.  If  there  is  ornament,  it  does 
not  interfere  with  usefulness  or  comfort,  and  is  so  applied 
that  it  brings  out  the  inherent  beauty  of  the  lines  and  mate- 
rial. The  reason  why  some  of  I  lie  plain  old  tables  and  chairs 
which  we  have  inherited  from  earlier  times  look  better  than 


344  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

many  of  the  elaborate  and  showy  ones  which  have  just  left 
the  factory  is  that  their  makers  were  more  interested  to 
make  them  strong  and  comfortable  than  simply  to  pro- 
duce novelties  the  chief  merit  of  which  is  to  catch  the  eye. 
The  same  principle  holds  in  all  household  furnishings — in 
fact,  in  everything.  If  a  woman  tries  sincerely  to  arrange 
her  house  according  to  this  idea  of  adaptation  to  use,  she 
need  not  worry  about  its  being  "pretty."  She  may  not  be 
rich  enough  to  have  expensive  things,  but  if  she  uses  har- 
monious colors  for  her  walls,  floors,  and  upholstery,  and 
chooses  furniture  for  its  good  design  and  comfort  rather  than 
for  its  ornamentation,  her  house  can  hardly  fail  to  be  restful 
and  attractive. 

It  sometimes  seems  difficult  for  a  person  who  can  not  pa- 
tronize expensive  shops  to  find  furniture  with  strong  and  yet 
graceful  lines,  wall  papers  and  upholstery  materials  in  simple 
designs  and  good,  soft  colors,  or  china  and  glass  with  plain  but 
good  shapes  and  decorations.  Nevertheless,  they  do  come 
in  inexpensive  grades,  and  the  more  people  demand  them 
the  more  dealers  will  carry  them.  Undoubtedly  it  is  easier 
to  take  what  is  offered  and  to  be  satisfied  with  the  assurance 
that  "it  is  positively  the  latest,"  even  when  one's  own  better 
judgment  says  that  it  is  neither  suitable  nor  beautiful. 
If  women  would  insist  on  getting  what  they  want  instead 
of  what  the  dealer  may  want  to  sell,  their  houses  would 
be  better  furnished,  and  they  would  do  much  toward  im- 
proving public  taste. 

It  is  possible  to  carry  the  idea  of  simplicity  too  far.  For  ex- 
ample, a  chair  is  not  necessarily  beautiful,  comfortable,  or  easy 
to  take  care  of  merely  because  it  is  made  up  of  straight  lines. 
On  the  contrary,  such  severely  plain  furniture  is  often  both 
awkward  looking  and  uncomfortable.  Too  many  useless  orna- 
ments in  a  room  undoubtedly  give  it  an  overcrowded,  restless 
look,  and  have  a  further  disadvantage  in  making  unneces- 
sary work  in  cleaning.  On  the  other  hand,  no  ornaments  at  all 
would  make  it  seem  bare  and  unfriendly.  The  sensible  woman 
steers  between  the  two  extremes  and  uses  a  few  ornaments, 
chosen  because  they  are  useful  things  in  especially  beautiful 
form,  or  because  they  represent  the  artistic  interests  of  the 
family,  or  have  the  intangible  but  none  the  less  real  value  of 
personal  association.     A  usable  vase  of  handsome  glass  or 


Selection  of  Household  Equijrment.  345 

pottery,  a  good-looking  box  for  matches,  a  graceful  lamp 
with  a  shade  which  not  only  throws  a  good  light  but  is  beau- 
tiful in  shape,  color,  and  design  by  day  as  well  as  by  night, 
a  candlestick  which  is  a  family  heirloom,  and  a  few  good 
photographs  or  prints  of  famous  places  or  pictures  in  which 
the  family  is  interested  are  examples  of  ornaments  which  are 
suitable,  because  there  is  some  reason  for  using  them. 

ECONOMY  IN  COST  AND  CARE. 

When  it  comes  to  the  point  of  deciding  between  several 
forms  of  the  same  article,  price  is  perhaps  the  first  thing  the 
majority  of  us  must  consider.  So  far  as  possible,  the  house- 
keeper should  have  a  definite  idea  of  how  much  she  ought  to 
pay  for  each  part  of  her  equipment  and  not  let  her  choice  run 
much  above  or  below  that.  It  is  not  true  economy  to  pay 
more  than  one  can  afford  for  a  thing,  no  matter  how  useful 
or  how  desirable  it  may  be.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cheapest 
is  not  always  the  most  economical.  Other  factors  besides  price 
enter  into  consideration,  foremost  among  them  being  suit- 
ability and  durability  or  wearing  quality.  It  is  evident  that  if 
dish-toweling  at  18  cents  a  yard  wears  twice  as  long  as  that 
at  12  cents,  the  more  expensive  is  cheaper  in  the  end.  Very 
often  the  wearing  quality  influences  not  only  the  price  but 
also  the  convenience  of  an  article.  In  the  case  of  wall  paper, 
curtains,  furniture  coverings,  and  other  things  on  which  con- 
siderable labor  must  be  spent  before  they  go  into  use,  it  i-  ;i 
satisfaction  to  have  them  durable,  so  that  the  full  value  of  the 
work  as  well  as  of  the  materials  may  he  obtained.  Moreover, 
after  one  lias  put  care  and  thought  into  the  selection  of  such 
furnishings  and  they  prove  successful  La  use,  it  is  discouraging 
to  have  them  wear  out  quickly  and  leave  the  whole  task  to  be 

done  over  again.  Some  families  get  tired  of  their  belongings 
so  soon  that  they  prefer  them  not  to  be  very  durable,  and 
argue  that  two  cheap  things  give  more  pleasure  than  one  ex- 
pensive one.  This  is  evidently  a  question  of  taste,  but  it  is 
worth  noting  in  this  connection  that  in  household  furnishings 
styles  change  much  less  rapidly  in  articles  of  good  quality 
than  iii  the  cheaper  grades,  and  that  among  people  of  culti- 
vated taste  whose  means  allow  them  to  choose  what  they 
like,    furnishings    are    kepi     in    use    for    many    years    and    are 


346  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

admired  not  for  their  novelty  or  fashion  but  for  their  intrinsic 
beauty.  Moreover,  in  such  things  as  furniture,  upholstery 
materials,  linens,  etc.,  durability  and  beauty  frequently  go 
together,  because  both  depend  upon  good  quality  in  the 
materials  and  workmanship,  and  if  one  gets  good-looking 
things,  they  often  turn  out  to  be  durable.  The  size  and  cir- 
cumstances of  a  family  sometimes  change  faster  than  its  good 
furniture  wears  out,  and  unless  this  possibility  is  borne  in 
mind  when  the  furniture  is  bought,  the  family  may  find 
itself  stocked  with  things  which  still  have  a  great  deal  of 
wear  in  them  but  are  not  suited  to  existing  circumstances. 

Another  important  element  in  the  choice  of  furnishings  is 
the  amount  of  labor  required  to  care  for  them  and  keep  them 
in  good  condition.  There  is  a  greater  range  of  choice  here 
than  many  women  realize,  and  it  is  a  question  which  is  worth 
more  consideration  than  is  often  given  to  it.  Rough  surfaces 
like  those  on  cheap  earthenware,  and  worn,  rough,  and  un- 
painted  wood  catch  and  hold  dirt  and  are  much  harder  to 
clean  than  smooth  ones.  Carving  on  furniture,  elaborate 
castings  on  stoves,  elaborate  metal  fixtures,  fancy-shaped 
handles  on  dishes,  etc.,  are  things  which  make  cleaning  un- 
necessarily difficult.  Polished  metal  usually  takes  much 
rubbing  to  keep  it  in  condition,  and  for  this  reason  dull 
finishes  are  often  preferred  on  door  handles,  etc.  Sharp 
angles  in  moldings  also  collect  dirt  and  are  hard  to  clean. 
Rounded  moldings  where  the  wall  and  floor  meet  have  been 
introduced  in  hospitals  and  might  well  be  imitated  in  private 
houses,  as  they  make  it  much  easier  to  remove  dirt. 

GENERAL  AND  PERMANENT  EQUIPMENT. 

The  articles  which  go  to  furnish  a  house  are  so  many  and 
so  various  that  it  is  impossible  to  enumerate  them  in  a  brief 
article  or  even  to  mention  all  of  the  more  important  groups. 
All  that  can  be  done  is  to  discuss  some  of  the  latter  in  a  gen- 
eral way  which  will  show  how  to  apply  the  principles  of 
choice  which  have  already  been  described. 

Some  of  the  articles  of  household  equipment  are  installed 
permanently,  and  some  of  them  are  changeable.  Many  of  the 
permanent  ones  are  built  in  when  the  house  is  constructed  and 
come  within  the  province  of  the  builders.  Nevertheless, 
the  woman  for  whom  the  house  is  being  built,  or  who  is 


Selection  of  Household  Equijyment.  347 

choosing  one  already  built,  has  a  right  to  pass  judgment  on 
them,  since  it  is  she  who  uses  them  and  keeps  them  in  order. 

If  the  house  is  provided  with  a  water  and  drainage  system 
she  should  try  to  get  fixtures  which  are  convenient  to  use 
and  easy  to  care  for.  Open  plumbing  is  now  generally 
accepted  as  more  sanitary  than  inclosed  and  is  not  harder  to 
take  care  of,  particularly  if  the  pipes  are  smooth,  symmetri- 
cally arranged,  and  so  placed  that  they  are  easy  to  get  at. 
Porcelain-lined  fixtures  are  in  common  use  in  kitchens  and 
bathrooms  now,  and  if  the  interior  surface  is  smooth  and 
unbroken,  they  are  easy  to  clean,  but  if  the  enamel  has 
rough  spots  in  it  these  will  hold  the  dirt  most  obstinately.  If 
possible,  the  kitchen  sink,  washtubs,  bathtub,  closet,  and 
washbasin  should  be  so  placed  that  it  is  easy  to  clean  around 
and  behind  them. 

There  is  a  considerable  choice  of  material  for  kitchen  sinks, 
each  having  its  disadvantages  and  advantages.  For  ex- 
ample, the  porcelain  sinks  show  at  once  whether  they  are 
really  clean  or  not  and  can  be  kept  tidy  easily,  provided  they 
are  smooth,  but  they  are  rather  expensive;  enamel  is  easy 
to  clean  and  not  expensive  but  chips  easily;  soapstone  is 
durable,  but  difficult  to  clean;  iron  is  also  durable  and  is  not 
especially  hard  to  clean,  but  it  does  not  show  dirt  and  so 
invites  carelessness.  Whatever  material  is  chosen,  the  sink 
should  be  placed  where  the  light  is  good  and  should  be  set  at 
the  height  most  convenient  for  working.  This  question  of 
height  applies  also  to  worktables,  washtubs,  etc.,  and  will  be 
discussed  later. 

If  a  house  has  neither  plumbing  nor  a  drainage  system,  it 
should  at  least  have  a  kitchen  sink  of  good  size  and  height 
and,  if  possible,  made  of  material  which  can  be  kept  clean 
easily.  A  suitable  pipe  should  be  provided  for  carrying  away 
wastewater,  either  to  a  bucket  from  which  it  may  be  emptied 
or  to  a  drain  outside.  The  latter  must  bo  constructed  so 
thai  it  will  be  sanitary  and  should  not  bo  merely  an  open 
trench,  which  is  not  only  disagreeable  but  which  often 
becomes  dangerous  to  health. 

If  the  house  is  to  be  heated  by  stoves,  plain  substantial 

oiks  should  be.  selected.  It  is  difficult  to  see  why  garlands 
of  leaves  and  flowers  in  polished  me!  al  or  bronze  dogs  should 
ever  be  considered  appropriate  decorations  for  stoves,  yel 


348  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

such  designs  have  often  been  chosen  in  preference  to  models 
which  owe  their  good  looks  to  good  proportions  and  con- 
struction. Not  only  can  the  latter  be  more  easily  kept 
clean,  but  they  are  more  in  accord  with  the  requirements  of 
good  taste  than  those  which  are  awkward  in  shape  or  laden 
with  useless  ornaments,  so-called. 

If  the  house  is  heated  with  steam  or  hot  water,  radiators 
should  be  selected  which  are  of  suitable  size  and  shape  and 
which  have  plain  surfaces  without  raised  designs  to  catch 
and  hold  dirt.  Since  their  main  purpose  is  to  heat  the  room, 
their  size  and  location  depend  chiefly  on  this,  but  as  far  'as 
possible  they  should  be  arranged  so  that  they  will  not  inter- 
fere with  the  placing  of  furniture  in  the  room  and  so  that  it 
will  be  easy  to  clean  around  and  behind  them. 

Whatever  means  of  lighting  is  used — oil,  gas,  or  electric- 
ity— simple  lamps  or  fixtures  are  usually  preferable,  because 
they  are  easier  to  keep  clean  than  fancy  ones,  and,  if  they 
are  made  of  good  materials  and  good  designs,  are  better  look- 
ing than  very  elaborate  ones.  Light  is  often  used  more 
economically  if  there  are  several  fixtures  in  different  parts  of 
a  room,  and  if  these  are  planned  for  in  the  beginning  they 
can  be  obtained  with  little  extra  expense.  In  the  room  where 
the  family  sit  to  read  and  sew  a  good  lamp  or  a  drop-light 
on  the  table  or  fairly  low  side  lights  on  the  wall  are  better 
for  the  eyes  than  high  central  lights.  A  good  fight  should 
be  provided  in  the  kitchen,  especially  in  the  places  where 
the  work  is  chiefly  done,  such  as  over  the  sink  and  the  work 
table. 

Screens  for  windows  and  doors  are  sometimes  considered 
part  of  the  permanent  and  sometimes  part  of  the  changeable 
equipment  of  a  house,  but  in  any  case  the  house  should  be 
well  supplied  with  them,  not  so  much  because  flies  and  mos- 
quitoes are  disagreeable  as  because  they  actually  carry  dis- 
ease and  are  very  dangerous  pests.  The  screens  which  are 
made  to  fit  the  individual  windows  and  do  not  need  to  be 
removed  each  time  the  latter  are  opened  are  undoubtedly 
the  most  convenient,  but  if  they  are  too  expensive,  cheaper 
kinds  can  be  used  satisfactorily.  If  the  ready-made  adjust- 
able ones  are  chosen  care  must  be  taken  to  have  them  fit 
tightly.  If  there  are  any  cracks,  flies  and  mosquitoes  will 
find  their  way  in  but  not  out.  Door  screens  should  be  pro- 
vided with  springs  so  that  they  will  be  sure  to  close  tightly. 


Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1914. 


Plate  XXVII. 


iIO 


Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1914. 


Plate  XXVIII. 


Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1914. 


Plate  XXIX. 


Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1914. 


Plate  XXX. 


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Selection  of  Household  Equipment.  349 

Bronze  wire  mesh  which  will  not  rust  is  perhaps  the  most 
durable  material  for  screens.  Cheaper  wire  carefully  painted 
lasts  fairly  well,  and  cotton  netting  is  equally  efficient  as 
long  as  it  is  whole.  It  is  better  to  have  a  house  thoroughly 
screened  with  netting  than  badly  screened  with  wire,  but  the 
netting  will  have  to  be  carefully  watched  and  frequently 
renewed  to  keep  it  fly  proof. 

In  cold  climates  double  windows  are  often  used  in  winter, 
and  soon  pay  for  themselves  by  the  saving  in  coal. 

Built-in  closets  or  cupboards  are  other  features  of  perma- 
nent equipment  which  are  most  important  to  the  house- 
keeper. If  she  has  anything  to  do  with  planning  her  house, 
she  should  try  to  locate  them  where  it  takes  the  least  possible 
number  of  steps  to  get  at  or  put  away  their  contents.  A 
small  closet,  provided  with  shelves  and  drawers  especially 
adapted  to  the  things  kept  there,  is  more  satisfactory  than 
a  larger  closet  poorly  arranged.  In  planning  drawers  it  is 
well  to  remember  that  a  larger  number  of  shallow  ones  are 
usually  preferable  to  a  few  deep  ones,  because  all  of  the 
space  in  them  can  be  used  without  piling  things  on  top  of 
eu<h  other.  Similarly,  narrow  shelves,  preferably  not  more 
than  a  foot  wide,  are  usually  more  convenient  than  wider 
ones  and  are  easier  to  keep  clean.  Many  housekeepers  prefer 
the  movable  kitchen  cabinets  to  built-in  cupboards  for  kitchen 
supplies,  because  they  have  a  convenient  place  for  all  the 
necessary  things  and  no  waste  space. 

WOODWORK    AND    WALLS. 

The  finish  of  the  woodwork  and  walls  of  the  house  is  part 
of  its  permanent  equipment  which  plays  an  important  role 
in  its  genera]  attractiveness  and  the  ease  with  which  it  can 
be  taken  care  of.  Woodwork  of  the  baseboards,  doors,  win- 
dow casings,  etc.,  should  be  easy  to  dust  and  wash.  This 
means  round  corners  and  no  elaborate  moldings.  Whether 
or  not  such  surfaces  should  be  painted  or  stained  and  var- 
nished depends  partly  upon  how  good  the  wood  is  and  partly 

upon  personal  taste.     As  a  general  rule,  varnished  woodwork 

is  easier  to  keep  in  order  than  painted,  but  paint  covers  up 
poor  WOOd  better  ami  can  he  used  in  lighter  colors,  a  point 
which  is  often  in  its  favor  in  rooms  where  there  is  insufficient 
Bght  or  where  a  "light"  treatment   in  color  and  furnishings 


350  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

is  desired.  Good  enamel  mixed  with  the  last  coat  of  paint 
prolongs  its  life  and  makes  it  easier  to  clean. 

For  floors,  paint  is  less  durable  and  harder  to  clean  than 
well-finished  waxed  varnish,  but  if  the  boards  are  old  and 
rough  it  would  probably  be  better  to  paint  them.  Carpets  or 
mattings  tacked  down  close  around  the  baseboard  may  be 
warmer  in  winter  than  rugs  which  do  not  cover  the  whole  floor, 
but  they  are  less  desirable,  because  it  is  so  difficult  to  take  them 
up  and  clean  them.  Not  only  must  the  tacks  be  removed  from 
the  carpet,  but  their  larger  size  makes  them  more  difficult 
to  handle  than  rugs.  For  months  they  remain  full  of  dust 
and  dirt  which  flies  into  the  air  when  they  are  walked  on,  and 
for  this  reason  they  are  very  insanitary.  If  a  floor  is  too 
bad  for  ordinary  rugs,  it  is  better  to  paint  it  and  then  lay 
down  a  carpet  rug  large  enough  to  cover  all  but  the  edges 
than  to  tack  a  carpet  over  the  whole  floor.  For  the  floors  of 
kitchens,  bathrooms,  and  passageways  which  must  be  washed 
frequently  some  material  less  absorbent  than  wood  is  de- 
sirable. Cement  is  sometimes  used  for  back  entries,  pan- 
tries, etc.,  but  it  is  hard  and  cold  underfoot  for  the  kitchen. 
Good,  heavy  linoleum  is  perhaps  as  satisfactory  as  anything 
for  kitchen,  laundry,  and  bathroom,  as  it  is  comfortable 
underfoot,  easy  to  clean,  and  very  durable.  Oilcloth  is 
cheaper,  but  not  so  durable. 

Walls  may  be  painted  with  any  of  the  good  water  or  oil 
paints  or  covered  with  paper.  For  rooms  where  the  walls 
need  frequent  cleaning  or  where  water  is  likely  to  be  splashed 
on  them,  as  in  kitchens  and  bathrooms,  a  paint  which  will 
not  be  injured  by  moisture  or  some,  varnished  paper  or  other 
waterproof  material  is  preferable.  In  other  parts  of  the 
house  the  ordinary  wall  papers  are  most  common  because 
they  can  be  obtained  at  almost  any  price  and  in  a  great  va- 
riety of  styles  and  colors.  Fashions  in  wall  papers  vary  from 
time,  to  time,  taste  inclining  sometimes  toward  darker  tints 
or  larger  figures,  sometimes  toward  lighter  colors  or  incon- 
spicuous designs.  Such  changes  in  style  are  not  important, 
however,  and  the  selection  of  paper  suitable  for  the  room  is 
always  more  satisfactory  in  the  long  run.  In  wall  papers, 
as  in  furniture,  many  of  the  best  designs  now  on  the  market 
have  been  adapted  from  old  ones  of  different  periods. 
Tapestry  effects,   for  example,    are  suggested  by  the  real 


Selection  of  Household  Equipment.  351 

tapestries  which  covered  the  rough  walls  and  broke  the 
drafts  in  medieval  houses,  and  some  of  the  floral  designs 
come  from  the  silks  and  velvets  with  which  the  luxurious 
palaces  of  Italy  and  France  were  hung.  These  have  stood 
the  test  of  time  because  they  are  in  accordance  with  the 
fundamental  principles  of  decorative  art.  One  of  the  reasons 
why  the  wall  papers  seen  in  so  many  rooms  are  unsatisfac- 
tory is  that  designs  good  in  themselves  are  used  in  places 
where  they  do  not  belong.  Because  a  bold  floral  design 
carried  out  in  rich  brocade  looked  well  on  the  walls  of  a 
Venetian  palace,  it  does  not  follow  that  a  similar  design  im- 
perfectly reproduced  on  paper  would  look  well  in  a  small  room 
of  a  simple  frame  house  in  this  country.  Extreme  designs 
are  always  rather  difficult  to  adapt  successfully,  and  it  is  usu- 
allv  safer  to  choose  simple  effects  which  are  sure  to  prove 
satisfactory. 

It  is  usually  better  to  consider  the  wall  covering  of  a  living 
room  as  a  background  than  as  a  decoration.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  if  pictures  are  to  be  hung  against  it.  In  wall 
papers,  as  in  dress,  inconspicuous  designs  and  neutral  colors 
are  more  satisfactory  for  "steady  wear"  than  the  reverse, 
particularly  if  one  is  limited  as  to  cost,  for  "showy"  material 
of  poor  quality  soon  reveals  its  cheapness. 

The  exposure  of  a  room  and  the  amount  of  light  in  it  should 
be  considered  in  choosing  the  color  for  the  walls.  It  is  well- 
known  that  cream,  yellow,  and  yellow-brown  shades  on  the 
walls  of  a  room  with  northern  exposure  "warm  them  up" 
and  that  soft  greens  and  grays  temper  the  light  in  sunnier 
looms.  As  a  rule  large,  striking  designs  should  not  be  used 
in  small  rooms.  Stripes  also  should  be  used  cautiously, 
especially  where  the  rooms  are  high.  The  most  satisfactory 
designs  are  often  those  in  which  the  figure  almost  covers  the 
background  or  in  which  the  color  contrast  between  the  two  is 
not  very  striking.  Some  of  the  best  ones  combine  different 
tones  of  the  same  colors  in  tin1  background  and  the  figures. 
PI.  XXVII,  A,  shows  an  example  of  a  paper  with  an  incon- 
spicuous design   in   two   tones  of  soft    brown,  in   contrast  to 

PI.  XXVI I,  />,  which  though  well  designed  is  unsuited  to  a 

moderate-sized  room  in  an  ordinary  lions 1  account  of  the 

strong  color  contrast  between  figures  and  background,  and  the 
size  of  the  pattern,  the  largest  (lower  being  some  12  inches  in 


;!.")_'  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

diameter.  A  plain  paper,  such  as  cartridge  or  the  various  so- 
called  "  textile"  or"oatmeal"  papers,  can  be  obtained  in  good 
colors  and  at  low  cost  and  is  always  safe  to  use.  There  has 
been  a  great  improvement  in  the  designs  of  inexpensive 
papers  in  recent  years,  and  attractive  ones  can  be  found  at 
almost  any  price. 

The  color  of  the  walls  usually  determines  the  color  of  the 
other  furnishings  of  the  room,  and  really  good  and  pleasing 
effects  in  house  decoration  depend  more  on  such  color 
combinations  than  on  any  other  single  factor.  If  wall  and 
floor  coverings,  curtains,  and  upholstery  all  blend,  the  effect 
will  be  much  more  pleasing  and  harmonious  to  the  eye  than 
if  each  stands  out  from  the  others  distinct  and  hard.  A 
single  spot  of  rich  color  against  such  a  blended  background, 
say,  a  table  cover,  or  a  sofa  pillow,  will  do  more  to  brighten 
a  room  than  brilliant  colors  spread  indiscriminately  over 
the  walls  and  furniture.  Just  as  the  principal  objects  in  one 
room  should  harmonize  in  color,  so  adjoining  rooms  should 
show  in  harmonious  colors.  A  hall,  for  instance,  should 
usually  be  in  neutral  tones,  so  that  its  color  will  not  clash 
with  the  rooms  opening  from  it. 

TEXTILES    FOR    HOUSEHOLD   USE. 

Textiles  of  one  kind  or  another  make  an  important  part  of 
the  changeable  equipment  of  a  house.  Carpets,  rugs,  cur- 
tains, furniture  covering,  household  linen,  blankets,  etc.,  all 
come  under  this  heading.  A  general  knowledge  of  the 
different  fibers — cotton,  wool,  silk,  linen,  etc. — of  which 
these  materials  are  made,  the  effect  and  durability  of  different 
d}Tes,  the  values  of  the  different  methods  of  cleaning,  etc., 
would  evidently  be  a  help  to  the  practical  housekeeper. 
Much  has  been  written  regarding  color,  design,  and  other 
matters  pertaining  to  household  textiles  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  fine  arts,  but  many  of  the  other  questions,  especially 
regarding  durability,  strength,  etc.,  have  not  as  yet  been 
systematically  studied.  Some  of  those  which  bear  most 
directly  on  everyday  household  processes  are  being  investi- 
gated in  this  department  by  laboratory  methods,  and  it  is 
hoped  that  as  useful  results  may  be  obtained  as  have  been 
gained  from  the  scientific  investigations  of  food  materials. 
In  the  meanwhile,  general  practical  experience  is  a  great  help 
in  selecting  such  furnishings. 


Selection  of  Household  Equipment.  353 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  tacked-down  carpets  and  mat- 
tings mean  too  much  work  in  cleaning  to  be  recommended, 
and  movable  rugs  of  some  kind  are  much  to  be  preferred. 
Rugs- large  enough  to  cover  the  whole  floor  are  not  as  easy  to 
handle,  but  stay  in  place  better  than  small  ones.  In  choos- 
ing: rugs,  one  should  select  those  which  are  firmly  woven 
and  which  he  flat.  If  they  are  too  thin  or  loosely  woven 
they  will  work  up  into  wrinkles  or  ridges,  especially  if  they 
are  large.  Good  oriental  rugs  are  very  beautiful  and  wear 
a  long  time,  but  they  are  too  expensive  to  be  generally  used 
in  the  majority  of  homes.  Carpet  rugs  are  now  manufac- 
tured in  a  great  variety  of  shapes,  sizes,  materials,  and 
designs,  and  are  very  satisfactory.  Some  of  the  best  are 
those  adapted  from  oriental  ones.  Good  Brussels  and  some 
of  the  firmer  of  the  pile  carpetings  are  excellent,  as  are  also 
those  which  resemble  the  heavy,  old-fashioned  "three-ply" 
ingrains.  Old-fashioned  rag  rugs  and  their  modern  imita- 
tions have  an  attractive,  pleasing  style  of  their  own.  They 
are  especially  appropriate  for  bedrooms  and  bathrooms, 
but  are  often  too  thin  for  places  where  there  is  constant 
passing.  Matting  rugs,  which  now  come  in  good  tones  of 
the  standard  colors,  often  prove  useful,  though  they  are  not 
so  durable  as  good  wool.  They  are  particularly  suitable  for 
warm  climate-. 

What  was  said  of  color  and  design  in  relation  to  wall  paper 
applies  also  to  carpets  and  rugs.  Soft  colors  and  inconspic- 
uous figures  wear  better  to  the  eye  and  harmonize  better  with 
the  other  furnishings  than  gaudy  figures  on  a  bright  back- 
ground. The  rugs  should  tone  in  with  the  coloring  of  the 
walls  and  should  ordinarily  be  darker  in  shade  than  the 
Latter,  not  only  because  they  show  soil  less,  but  also  because 
they  seem  to  bring  the  room  and  its  furniture  into  their 
proper  relations. 

Window  curtains  serve  the  double  purpose  of  regulating 
the  light  and  of  breaking  the  hard,  straight  lines  of  the  cas- 
ings. Window  shades  of  Holland  or  similar  materia]  arc 
more  satisfactory  than  draperies  for  shutting  out  strong 
Bunshine  by  day  and  securing  privacy  by  night,  but  they  do 
not  -often  the  general  light  of  the  room  as  do  draperies. 
The  latter,  if  they  conic  next  to  the  glass,  should  he  light  in 
color  and  texture  and  should  he  easy  to  launder.      If  a  little 


354  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

color  is  desired  around  the  windows,  the  fashion  of  hanging 
straight  curtains  of  some  thicker  colored  material  inside 
thin  white  ones  of  lace  or  muslin  is  an  excellent  one.  Some 
housekeepers  use  only  the  thin  ones  in  summer  when  coolness 
and  air  are  wanted,  and  put  up  the  heavier,  darker  ones 
when  cold  weather  makes  the  effect  of  warmth  desirable. 

In  choosing  bed  coverings  the  principal  thing  to  remember 
is  that  one  wants  as  much  warmth  with  as  little  weight  as 
possible.  For  this  reason  wool  is  preferable  to  cotton  or  to 
wool  and  cotton  mixed  for  blankets,  comforters,  etc.  Linen 
sheets  and  pillowcases  have  almost  disappeared  from 
general  use  because  of  their  high  price.  Cotton  ones  are, 
for  all  practical  purposes,  quite  as  satisfactory.  All  bed 
coverings  should  be  large  enough  to  tuck  in  firmly  all  around 
the  mattress,  a  point  especially  to  be  remembered  in  buying 
ready-made  sheets,  which  are  sometimes  too  short  for 
ordinary  beds. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  some  material  which  can  be 
easily  laundered  is  the  best  for  tablecloths,  napkins,  etc. 
Real  linen  is  preferable  to  cotton  or  cotton  and  linen  mixtures, 
because  it  lies  flatter,  does  not  look  "mussy"  so  soon, 
does  not  leave  lint  on  the  clothing,  and  takes  a  better  luster 
in  laundering.  As  in  almost  all  textiles,  a  firm  weave  is 
more  durable  than  a  sleazy  one.  Provided  the  threads  are 
smoothly  twisted,  coarse  table  linen  is  as  durable  as  fine, 
but  it  is  not  as  handsome.  White  is  usually  preferred  to 
colored  material,  both  because  it  stands  more  washing  and 
because  it  shows  at  once  whether  it  is  clean  or  not.  If 
neatness  is  desirable  anywhere  it  must  be  at  the  table  where 
we  eat,  and  though  white  tablecloths  mean  much  washing 
for  the  busy  housekeeper,  she  should  think  twice  before  she 
substitutes  dark-colored  clot.hs  which  may  be  dirty  before 
they  have  to  be  changed  "for  appearance's  sake." 

Linen  is  usually  considered  more  satisfactory  than  cotton 
for  toweling,  because  it  absorbs  water  fully  as  easily  and  dries 
more  quickly.  Too  firm  a  weave  or  too  heavy  a  thread  is  not 
desirable,  in  spite  of  greater  durability,  for  these  make  it  less 
absorbent.  For  hand  towels  many  persons  prefer  a  rough 
weave  like  huckaback  to  a  smooth  one  like  damask,  not 
only  because  it  is  more  absorbent,  but  also  because  it  gives 
a  better  friction   to  the  skin. 


Selection  of  Household  Equipment.  355 

There  is  such  an  infinite  variety  of  materials  for  furniture 
covering  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  include  all  types  in  a 
brief  discussion.  Leather,  wool,  silk,  linen,  and  cotton  are 
all  used.  Leather  is  dignified  looking,  and  the  good  qualities 
are  durable,  but  in  the  cheaper  grades  the  surface  tends  to 
wear  off  and  crack,  and  it  is  often  rather  stiff  and  uncomfort- 
able. Silk  materials  are  appropriate  in  certain  places,  but 
are  too  expensive  for  common  use,  except  perhaps  for  cushion 
covers,  hangings,  and  possibly  for  the  covering  of  a  choice 
piece  of  furniture.  Cotton  is  inexpensive  and  does  not  wear 
through  quickly,  but  often  it  does  not  hold  its  color  well  and 
also  catches  dirt  easily.  Nevertheless  it  is  frequently  used  in 
cretonnes,  chintzes,  and  similar  printed  goods  and  in  low-priced 
velours,  tapestries,  etc.  It  is  worth  noting  that  mercerizing 
and  some  of  the  other  new  methods  of  treating  cotton  during 
its  manufacture  have  improved  its  appearance  and  also  its 
wearing  qualities.  Linen  is  occasionally  used  in  materials 
similar  to  chintzes,  but  its  most  common  use  in  furniture 
covering  and  draperies  is  in  velour,  a  sort  of  heavy  velvet 
material  which  is  also  made  in  cotton,  but  which  is  more 
durable  in  linen.  Except  for  the  fact  that  moths  and 
buffalo  beetles  are  so  likely  to  damage  it,  wool  is  probably 
the  most  satisfactory  fiber  for  upholstery.  It  is  more 
durable  than  silk  or  cotton,  does  not  catch  the  dirt  as  easily 
as  the  latter,  and  holds  its  color  excellently.  It  is  made 
into  a  great  variety  of  materials — damasks,  tapestries, 
plushes,  etc. 

The  use  to  which  the  room  is  to  be  put  influences  the 
selection  of  materials  in  furniture  coverings  and  draperies. 
Gay,  light  chintzes  or  cretonnes  are  appropriate  for  a  bed- 
room, which  one  wishes  to  have  clean  and  airy  looking, 
whereas  for  a  living-room  substantial  looking  material  like 
velour  or  tapestry  would  be  more  suitable. 

FURNITURE. 

In  furniture  itself,  good  quality  depends  on  well-chosen 
material--,  good  design,  and  Lr"<>d  workmanship.  Wood  is 
the  most  common  material,  but  metal  is  sometimes  substi- 
tuted for  bed  .  and  wicker  or  rattan  for  chairs,  con.  lies. 
and  small   tables.     Soft  wood,  especially   pine,  is  used   for 

cheap  painted  chairs,  kitchen   tables,  dr.,  but   harder  vaiic- 


356  Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

ties  are  preferable  for  general  use.  The  important  qualities 
in  furniture  wood  are  strength  and  beauty  of  grain,  though 
color  is  also  a  consideration.  Oak  is  probably  the  most 
common  kind  now  used  in  standard-grade  furniture,  and 
mahogany  is  always  in  demand  for  handsome  pieces. 
Bird's-eye  maple,  cherry,  rosewood,  etc.,  are  also  occasionally 
seen.  Black  walnut  is  another  beautiful  wood  for  furniture, 
but  it  is  seldom  seen  in  new  pieces  now,  partly  because  the 
supply  has  run  short  and  partly  because  it  is  chiefly  asso- 
ciated in  our  mhids  with  the  heavy,  overornamented  style  of 
furniture  for  which  it  was  used  some  50  years  ago  and  which 
has  now  fallen  into  disfavor.  Some  of  the  more  expensive 
woods  are  imitated  by  staining  cheaper  kinds. 

The  advantages  of  wicker  furniture  should  not  be  over- 
looked. It  is  light,  comfortable,  and  durable;  some  of  the 
simpler  designs  are  very  good  and  combine  well  with  other 
kinds  of  furniture,  especially  when  the  wicker  is  stained  a 
harmonious  color. 

Any  piece  of  furniture  should  be  and  should  look  strong 
enough  for  the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put.  Chairs  and 
couches  should  be  selected  for  the  comfort  of  the  persons 
who  use  them,  and  a  living  room  should  be  provided  with  a 
sufficient  variety  to  suit  all  the  members  of  the  family.  As 
regards  design,  those  which  suggest  comfort  and  strength 
should  be  chosen  rather  than  "gim  cracky"  types,  and  if 
there  is  any  ornamentation  it  should  be  placed  where  it 
brings  out  the  important  lines  of  the  piece  rather  than  seem 
to  be  put  on  for  its  own  sake. 

The  number  and  size  of  the  pieces  of  furniture  in  a  room 
should  bear  some  relation  to  the  size  of  the  room.  Though 
crowded  tables,  insufficient  bookshelves,  or  too  few  chairs 
are  inconvenient,  having  a  room  so  full  of  furniture  that  one 
bumps  into  it  at  every  turn  is  even  worse. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  well-distributed  empty 
spaces  add  to  the  beauty  of  a  house.  In  cities  where  extra 
space  means  extra  cost,  small,  overcrowded  rooms  are  some- 
times unavoidable,  but  women  who  are  so  fortunate  as  to 
live  in  roomy  country  houses  ought  to  make  the  most  of  their 
privileges  and  give  their  families  the  pleasure  of  ample  space, 
even  if  this  means  banishing  to  the  attic  a  few  superfluous 
pieces  of  furniture. 


Selection  of  Household  Equipment.  357 

TABLE    AND    KITCHEN    UTENSILS. 

Table  and  kitchen  utensils  make  up  another  important 
group  of  furnishings.  Very  often  the  same  kind  of  articles 
in  different  qualities  are  found  in  both  sets.  Table  plates 
(PL  XXVIII,  A),  for  example,  differ  from  kitchen  plates  more 
in  their  attractiveness  than  in  any  other  way.  Real  china 
or  porcelain,  which  is  always  translucent  and  of  which  the 
choice  tablewares  are  usually  made,  is  more  suitable  for 
occasional  than  general  use  because  it  is  rather  fragile,  but 
its  light  weight,  fine  color,  and  smooth  surface  are  unde- 
niably beautiful.  Earthenware  with  a  good  glaze  usually 
ranks  next  to  porcelain  and  is  very  satisfactory  for  general 
use.  The  old  blue  and  white  Staffordshire  wares,  which 
were  so  highly  prized  in  colonial  days  in  this  country, 
belonged  to  this  type,  and  similar  ware  (see  PL  XXIX, 
D)  is  still  to  be  obtained  in  many  satisfactory  designs, 
one  of  the  common  ones  being  the  well-known  willow 
pattern.  Large  and  conspicuous  designs  usually  become 
tiresome  on  things  which  are  used  as  frequently  as  table 
dishes  and  it  is  safer  to  select  plain  white  or  some  all- 
over  pattern  or  inconspicuous  bands  of  flowers,  color,  or 
gilt.  It  is  usually  wiser  to  buy  tableware  from  an  open- 
stock  design  than  to  take  the  regular  sets,  which  often  in- 
clude unneces>ary  pieces  and  can  not  always  be  replaced 
when  broken.  Good,  plain  shapes  are  ordinarily  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  more  fancy  ones,  because  they  are  better  adapted 
to  their  purposes  and  are  easier  to  clean  than  those  which 
have  irregular  surfaces  and  ''nubbles"  which  catch  and 
hold  the  dust.  Pitchers,  teapots,  and  other  dishes  with 
openings  so  small  that  the  hand  can  not  be  inserted  to  wash 
and  wipe  them  axe  t  o  be  avoided.  Plate  XXVIII,  B,  illustrates 
a  teapot  which  is  hard  to  clean  on  account  of  both  the  olabo- 
rate  handle  and  the  small  opening.  Kitchen  crockery,  like 
tableware,  should  have  a  good,  smooth-finished  glaze  which 
will  clean  easily  and  not  chip. 

Glassware  is  to  be  obtained  m  almost  any  grade,  from  the 
mosi  expensive  cui  glass  to  the  coarse  kind  used  in  jelly 
tumblers.  The  choice  depends  chiefly  on  the  pockctbook, 
but  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  plain  glass  or  glass  cut 
in  a  simple  pattern  is  easier  to  keep  shining  and  is  usually 


358  YearhooJc  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

more  beautiful  than  any  except  possibly  the  very  expensive 
types  of  elaborately  ornamented  glass.  Plate  XXIX,  C,  shows 
a  pitcher  of  plain  inexpensive  glass  and  a  shape  which  is  both 
graceful  and  easy  to  care  for. 

Knives,  forks,  and  spoons  are  made  in  several  kinds  of 
metal.  Silver  is  the  most  durable  and  always  has  an 
intrinsic  value.  Plated  silver  is  made  so  well  and  so  cheaply 
nowadays  that  almost  every  family  can  have  at  least  a 
supply  of  forks  and  spoons.  Many  prefer  steel-bladed  to 
silver  knives  for  the  main  course  at  a  meal  because  they  cut 
better,  but  they  are  harder  to  care  for  than  silver  or  plated 
ones.  Tea  sets,  pitchers,  and  other  serving  dishes  come  in 
good  designs  in  plated  as  well  as  solid  silver.  If  the  family 
happens  to  own  handsome  ones,  they  make  appropriate  side- 
board ornaments;  but  they  require  frequent  rubbing  up  to 
keep  them  bright,  and  unless  they  are  needed  every  day  on 
the  table  it  is  better  to  put  them  away  and  reserve  them  for 
special  occasions  than  to  let  them  stand  about  tarnished. 

There  is  much  discussion  as  to  the  best  material  for  cook- 
ing utensils.  The  truth  is  that  no  material  is  best  for  all, 
and  the  work  is  most  easily  and  satisfactorily  done  if  dif- 
ferent kinds  are  chosen  for  different  needs.  Earthenware 
is  excellent  for  certain  purposes,  as  it  holds  the  heat  evenly, 
and  baking  dishes  or  casseroles  in  which  the  food  can  be 
served  as  well  as  cooked  save  dish  washing.  Such  wares  are 
not  adapted  to  all  kinds  of  cooking,  however.  The  great 
heat  of  fat  in  frying,  for  example,  especially  when  the  hot 
fat  spatters  up  against  the  cooler  parts  of  the  dish,  is  likely 
to  crack  it.  Enameled  ware  is  light  in  weight,  easy  to  clean, 
and  is  little  affected  by  acids;  it  is  excellent  for  mixing 
dishes  and  for  keeping  food  in,  but  the  cheaper  grades  do  not 
always  stand  the  heat  of  cooking  well  and  soon  chip.  The 
enamel  should  be  free  from  bubbles  and  have  smooth,  evenly 
finished  edges  which  will  not  chip  readily.  Aluminum  heats 
quickly  and  so  economizes  fuel,  comes  in  very  good  shapes, 
is  light  to  handle,  and  very  durable;  it  is  affected  by  alkalies, 
discolors  easily,  and  is  rather  hard  to  clean.  Nevertheless, 
since  it  does  not  rust,  it  is  especially  desirable  for  teakettles, 
double  boilers,  kettle  covers,  etc.  Cast  iron  is  still  common 
ware  for  kitchen  utensils,  but  it  is  being  replaced  in  many 
homes  by  materials  which  are  lighter  in  weight  and  less 


Selection  of  Household  Equipment.  359 

expensive.  Good  iron  pans  and  skillets  are  excellent  for 
some  kinds  of  cooking,  however,  because  they  heat  more 
evenly  than  those  of  other  materials,  and  they  last  for  gen- 
erations. Iron  rusts  easily  and  is  affected  by  acids  as 
aluminum  is  by  alkalies.  It  is  because  of  this  action  of  acids 
that  iron  dishes  sometimes  injure  the  color  and  flavor  of 
food,  and  for  this  reason  food,  especially  acid  food,  is  usually 
not  allowed  to  stand  in  them.  Tin  and  sheet  iron  plated 
with  tin  are  in  common  use  in  most  kitchens  because  they 
are  rather  inexpensive,  but  they  are  not  entirely  satisfactory. 
Unless  they  are  unusually  heavy,  they  lose  their  shape 
quicklv.  In  thinly  plated  kinds  the  tin  wears  off  and  the 
iron  beneath  rusts  easily. 

The  shape  of  kettles  has  much  to  do  with  the  quickness 
with  which  their  contents  heat.  The  smaller  the  surface 
which  comes  in  contact  with  the  heat,  the  longer  it  will  take 
the  contents  to  become  warm,  and  vice  versa.  This  means 
that  in  a  kettle  with  a  broad  base  the  contents  heat  more 
quickly  than  in  one  with  a  small  base.  This  point  should 
be  especially  considered  where  gas  stoves  are  employed  and 
fuel  must  be  carefully  used. 

Because  a  thing  is  to  be  used  in  the  kitchen  is  no  reason 

why  it  should  be  ugly  to  look  at,  and  if  the  housekeeper  can 

find  mixing  bowls  and  kettles  which  are  attractive  in  shape, 

color,  and  finish,  as  well  as  convenient  and  easy  to  clean, 

they  will  give  her  a  sense  of  pleasure  every  time  they  are 

used. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  KITCHEN  FURNITURE. 

Since  the  kitchen  and  laundry  are  the  rooms  whore  the 
hardest  part  of  the  household  labor  is  performed,  the  ques- 
tion of  efficiency  in  their  equipment  is  especially  important. 
This  efficiency  depends  not  only  on  having  the  most  con- 
venient devices  for  doing  the  work,  but  also  on  having  them 
placed  where  they  can  be  most  conveniently  used.  If  a 
woman  has  to  go  to  a  distant  closet  or  pantry  every  time 
she  wants  ;i  di^h  or  a  little  flour,  or  even  if  she  has  to  cross  a 
large  room  as  Bhe  moves  between  the  stove  and  the  worktahle, 
the  sink  and   the  cupboard,  Bhe  will  waste  a   considerable 

amount  of  energy  in  the  course  of  a  day's  work.  1 1  ccr- 
tainly  is  worth  her  while  to  study  her  movements  as  she 
works  and  see  if  by  changing  the  place  in  which  Borne  things 


360 


Yearbook  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 


are  kept  or  by  moving  the  worktable  or  the  kitchen  cabinet 
she  can  not  reduce  this  waste  of  energy.  As  has  been 
already  suggested,  the  height  of  worktables,  sinks,  and 
laundry  tubs  has  much  to  do  with  the  ease  of  working. 
Different  kinds  of  work,  of  course,  call  for  tables  of  different 
heights.  Ironing,  for  example,  which  consists  of  pressing 
down  hard,  is  easier  on  a  lower  table  than  would  be  chosen 
for  general  work.  The  height  of  the  worker  also  makes  a 
difference.  From  32  to  36  inches  from  the  ground  is  the 
usual  height  for  general  worktables,  and  the  bottom  of  the 

sink  should  usually 
3  be  30  or  31  inches 
from  the  floor;  but 
it  is  better  for  each 
housekeeper  to  test 
out  the  matter  for 
herself  before  she 
buys  a  new  table  or 
has  a  new  sink  set  up 
than  to  trust  to  gen- 
eral rules.  These 
and  other  points  in 
kitchen  equipment 
have  been  discussed 
in  a  recent  Farmers' 
Bulletin.1  Plate  XXX  shows  a  woman  working  at  a  table  of 
correct  height  and  at  one  which  is  too  low,  and  makes  clear 
how  much  discomfort  and  unnecessary  effort  comes  from  bend- 
ing over  the  latter.  An  attempt  is  being  made  in  the  calo- 
rimeter laboratory  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  to  meas- 
ure exactly  how  much  energy  is  expended  at  tables  of  different 
heights,  and  it  is  hoped  to  extend  the  work  to  include  the 
expenditure  of  energy  during  various  household  tasks  per- 
formed under  favorable  and  unfavorable  conditions,  so  that 
questions  of  efficiency  in  housework  can  be  placed  on  as 
accurate  a  basis  in  the  dairy  or  the  factory.  A  table  (see 
fig.  20)  with  an  adjustable  top  which  permits  the  working 
height  to  be  easily  changed  has  been  made  for  experimental 
use  in  the  calorimeter  laboratory,  and  the  same  principle 
might  be  applied  for  use  in  the  home. 


Fig.  20. 


»  The  Farm  Kitchen  as  a  Workshop.    U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Farmers'  Bui.  607  (1914). 


Selection  of  Household  Equipment.  361 

IMPORTANCE  OF  STUDYING  HOUSEHOLD  QUESTIONS. 

A  generation  ago  such  subjects  might  have  been  thought 
beneath  the  dignity  of  scientific  investigation,  but  the  last 
few  years  have  seen  a  great  change  in  this  respect.  The  way 
in  which  our  homes  are  run,  or,  in  more  technical  terms,  the 
science  of  home  economics,  is  now  in  much  the  position  that 
scientific  agriculture  was  in  20  or  30  years  ago.  The  leaders 
had  shown  that  science  can  improve  crops  and  some  of  the 
more  progressive  farmers  were  giving  the  new  ideas  a  prac- 
tical test,  but  many  of  the  rank  and  file  were  still  doubtful 
whether  it  was  worth  while.  Few  farmers  of  to-day,  how- 
ever, would  care  to  go  back  to  the  days  before  experiment 
stations,  fertilizer  control,  etc.  The  fact  that  the  problem 
of  making  the  home  as  efficient  as  possible  includes  so  many 
different  kinds  of  questions  will  make  necessary  a  great  deal 
of  study  along  many  different  lines,  just  as  agriculture  has 
included  problems  as  different  as  those  of  insect  pests  and 
cheese  making.  In  solving  these  every  intelligent  farmer 
who  has  studied  them  on  his  own  farm  has  done  his  part  as 
well  as  the  special  investigators  in  the  laboratories.  In  the 
same  way,  every  intelligent  housekeeper  who  studies  the 
household  problems  of  cooking,  cleaning,  and  furnishing  and 
dies  to  solve  them  with  the  help  of  both  practical  experience 
and  scientific  information  hastens  the  day  when  household 
management  can  be  as  accurately  planned  as  that  of  the 
factory  and  the  farm. 

Planning  and  equipping  a  home  in  an  accurate  and  syste- 
matic way  does  not  mean  that  it  should  not  have  any  indi- 
viduality. On  the  contrary,  while  the  principles  which 
govern  a  wise  choice  of  furnishings  are  the  same  for  all  kinds 
and  conditions  of  houses  and  families,  the  articles  actually 
chosen  in  accordance  with  these  principles  would  vary  just 
a-  much  as  the  house  and  the  families  for  which  they  are 
intended.  Whether  one's  house  is  large  or  small,  things 
should  be  chosen  to  till  actual  needs,  and  to  lill  them  in  the 
way   nio-t    economical   of   money,  labor,   and   materials,   and, 

as  far  as  possible,  to  give  pleasure  as  well.  If  the  house  or 
the  family  is  large,  different  things  will  seem  aecessa*y,  con- 
venient, economical,  and  suitable,  from  those  which  would 
answer  the  requirements  if  there  were  Less  -pace  or  fewer 
persons  to  be  provided   for.     The  size  of  the  income  also 


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Form  L9-50m-4,'61(B8994s4)444 

iamny,  ana  tneir  anterent  occupations  and  interests.  Judged 
by  this  standard,  a  woman  who,  with  limited  means,  has 
made  a  convenient,  comfortable,  and  attractive  home  out  of 
an  unpromising,  inconvenient  farmhouse  has  shown  greater 
ability  than  one  who,  with  the  help  of  an  expensive  deco- 
rator, has  obtained  a  good  effect  in  a  house  equipped  with 
all  modern  improvements. 

o 


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nomics 

a  ry 


UNIVERSITY'  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIB 

"    <c  A-  y\es 


AA    000  480  890    3 


I 


TX 

311 

A88s 


